Someone obliged to tell the whole story who tells less than the whole story while implying that all has been told, commits that form of lying called the half-truth.
“black/white thinking” - we can fall into the trap of proceeding as if every field were exhausted by a pair of opposites; black and white, A and B/
Argument environment is usually one of less than complete knowledge, the increase of knowledge being, after all, the point of arguing.
argumentum ad ignorantium - the arguer uses the other sides inability or unwillingness to prove that a thesis is false as evidence that the thesis is true.
Appeals to ignorance turned around “prove” the opposite shows the faultiness of the style of reasoning eg. since opponents can’t prove the creation account false, then Genesis must be true; but since creationists can’t prove their contention, therefore Genesis is false.
Appeals to ignorance cheat because where there is ignorance as to the exact truth, the burden of proof belongs on whoever steps off of non-committal ground.
Our “conservative” natures see no point in doing for no good reason - ie. advocating change takes on the burden of proof.
petitio principii - an argument which depends partly or wholly on its conclusion ie. begging the question.
circular reasoning - concocting a string of premises in which the string, itself insufficient to sustain the conclusion, ultimately receives support from the conclusion
when a conclusion is a theory or a deduction according to a theory, one way to stack the deck is to formulate the original problem in terms of a framework presupposed by the theory.
(ir)relevance - the issue in dispute can appear to be addressed when in fact it is not being addressed.
ignoratio elenchi - ignoring the issue or the opponents argument.
ignoring the issue - designates any argument the premise(s) of which do bear on the conclusion but which bypass the issue.
- diversion also sometimes occurs not by addressing the larger issue but by elevating a subissue.
One pervasive source of reasons not addressed to the issue is subversion of reason by the passions.
The morality of nonrational methods - we owe others control over their lives, and control is what a nonrational pitch usually denies.
Appealing to the nonrational in human nature has been a favourite form of behaviour modification eg. Eve to Adam; Klondike sales pitch “every good person gives”
nonrational methods are immoral due to (1) it denies information on which to make intelligent decision, (2) even if a good decision has been made in response to a nonrational pitch, what assurances exist that the decision will remain good? [a rational decision is flexible] ie. if and when times and circumstance invalidate old reasons, new reasons come to the fore and a new decision can be made, (3) nonrational methods can be used for the worse or for the better.
Ways to by-pass the reasoning process and jump directly to a conclusion from instinct, emotion or prejudice: Appeal to pity, appeal to vanity, appeal to gregariousness, appeal to popular prejudice, appeal to subconscious motivation.
In a relevant appeal, the issue, by its nature one which arouses emotions, will be presented with a force proportional to the issues claim to consideration.
Appeals to pity achieve irrelevance by either the type, or the degree of their appeal ie. they fail to touch the “heart strings”, or they “milk” the issue for all its worth thereby putting you off, or they “lay it on thick” by inflating an otherwise relevant factor beyond its claim to consideration.
“everybody’s doing it” tends to carry people along in a hubris or gregariousness which neglects the question or issue why this or that?
Numbers don’t answer the question, “Why this or why that?”
Advertising testimonials, lacking usually even the pretence of authority or expertise, fall more neatly under the present heading, the irrelevant subrational appeal.
Many products don’t meet actual needs, they meet potential needs which are then created by advertising.
Playing on culturally induced fears, likes and aversions has won many an election, provided support for many a war, etc. Techniques that go under various guises such as “grandstanding” “playing to the gallery”.
For the political scoundrel, shallow patriotism, far from being a last refuge, becomes a vanguard.
Humor is used for the avoidance of argument confrontation.
Humorous ads seem especially effective at avoiding discussion of the product or issue.
No comments:
Post a Comment