Hegel
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(1770-1831) - developed the most
systematic and comprehensive philosophy of modern times; the Hegelian system
represents largely a synthesis of other philosophies; “what is real is rational, what
is rational is real;” he united thought into one Absolute which is both
rational and real.
Beginning with Descartes, all modern metaphysics had moved in a direction to strip
substance. Descartes reduced substance
to the status of an insensitive object of the understanding - that which could
not be experienced by the senses. Locke emptied it of all characteristics
except the mystic one which he called the unknown. Berkeley
identified it with spiritual phenomena, the stuff of experience. Hume
eliminated substance altogether.
It was Hegel’s task to reverse the trend in
philosophy, with respect to substance, by turning from abstraction to its
opposite, concretion.
For Hegel, phenomena are the genuine
externalization of the Absolute Spirit in objective nature; they are real facts in
the objective world, not mere images.
To Hegel, if every possible characteristic
is removed from substance, then it is reduced to sheer nullity.
Hegel concluded that the activity of
discerning the relationship among concrete realities would uncover genuine
rational truth.
Abstract - isolation
or severance of parts from the whole repeatedly until no further abstraction is
possible.
- isolated facts or moments may be
presented in formally correct statements but they can never constitute the
truth, because “the truth is the whole.”
- the truth is an integrated unity; truth
is not static, but dynamic.
Reality is a Gestalt in which the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
- the world’s progressive development is
directed by the Reason or Logos of
the cosmos, that is the spirit of the Absolute (actualizes the progress of nature in its evolutionary unfolding).
- to determine the truth it is necessary to
discover the concrete relationship of each entity to the whole; this can be
achieved by means of the Hegelian dialectic.
- since Rationalists depended upon the
static logic developed by Aristotle, they formed more and more abstractions
until they reached the limit of abstractions - nothingness.
“Becoming
is the fundamental feature of all existence”
Hegelian dialectic - a
dynamic logic which finds truth through a series of triads; thesis, antithesis,
synthesis.
- only by pointing out the many
relationships of any one object to other objects can we establish the truth
about that object.
- because of the principle of negativity (a cosmic
law), the opposites (thesis and antithesis), as a result of
the opposition, are reconciled (synthesis).
- the dialection process continues, with
each new synthesis turning into a new thesis, until one arrives at the Absolute.
The
Absolute, or God, is outside of time and therefore
comprises the universe in its potential state, awaiting further evolutionary
development.
Subjective mind -
represents the individual as one who creates abstractions and is independent of
society or culture.
Objective mind -
reflects the free will as it develops in three areas of experience (1) legal
(2) moral (3) social ethics
Absolute mind -
expresses itself in (1) art (2) religion
(3) philosophy
- persons have rights over things, but not
vice versa.
A person’s rights consist of (1) property rights (2) right of contract (3)
right to redress wrongs
- morality is purely subjective, coming
into existence only through a moral choice.
- ethical substance must be applied
dialectically to (1) family (2)
society (3) State
- an individual finds his real nature and
Being only in others.
The three aspects of the State are represented in (1) its constitution (2) international law (3) world history.
- according to the Hegelian dialectic, progress comes only through conflict,
the clash of opposing forces.
- world history constitutes the world’s
court of justice
The predominant nation in any epoch of
world history represents the dominant phase of the Idea, which courses through
history as the World Spirit (Welt Geist).
Hegel’s point of view is highly optimistic
because it assumes a world created God, rationally constructed, with a rational
goal (Absolute Idea, God) and course
of action (historical events) and
progressing towards its goal.
Hegelian
Right - after his death, conservative element of
religious-minded philosophers, stressed the importance of personality as a
metaphysical entity.
Hegelian
Left - espoused Materialism, radical element [DF
Strauss, Feuerbach, Marx].
David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874) - Life
of Jesus (1835) sought to prove that the gospel story is neither
liberal history nor intentional fiction, but a myth inspired by the times.
Ludwig Feuerbach
(1804-1872) - atheist, “man is what
he eats,” only objects of sense are real, man’s highest good being sensuous
enjoyment, Essence of Christianity (1841), the theogonic wish (principle which brings God into existence), man
creates absolute reality out of his subjectivity; theory of the wish - God is
the fulfilment of man’s wishes. Without
man, God cannot exist, for man is God.
God is an extension of man’s nature.
Philosophical egoism -
theory that only the individual and his senses is absolute.
Realists - objects
exist independently of the mind or senses.
The distinguishing feature of Absolute
Idealism (Hegel’s system) is
that it identifies reality with the Absolute
ie. the whole of reality, the
world.
Arthur Schopenhauer
(1788-1860) - took the opposite view
to Hegel; saw reality as a blind irrational will and life as evil
(pessimistic); regarded phenomena as mere illusions; an atheist.
- the phenomenal
world consists of ideas or representations, while the ontologically real (ultimate
reality) is the will; we are but individual manifestations of the will.
- the world which
we sense is merely an idea within us. “The world is my idea.”
“All that exists, exists only for the subject” “there
is no object without a subject”
The Kantian “thing-in-itself”
is in fact the will according to Schopenhauer.
- he was an
idealist in asmuch as he believed that both idea and will are of the nature of
the mind. Reason is subordinate to
will. Will is non-rational urge, drive,
instinct.
Schopenheuer’s concept
of suffering corresponds to the modern psychologist’s idea of frustration. His outlook on life was bleakly pessimistic
because he insisted that there was no end to striving.
- desires can
never be satisfied; the essence of life is misery “human life must be some kind of mistake”
- the active work
of the world is not ethically good but evil
ie. brutality of animal kingdom
Suicide is not
the answer because the will lives on.
Three means of
salvation (1) Aesthetic (2) Ethical (3) Religious
Aesthetic - contemplation
of Platonic Ideas lifts one above the storms of life (through art).
- the highest
ethical achievement of man is not to reject life but to repudiate
desire.Nietzsche made the will a positive force of life affirmation while
Albert Schweitzer transformed the negative will into an optimistic will
reflecting the ideal of reverence for life.- recognized the creative arts as
sources of relief and happiness.
Edward von Hartmann (1842-1906) - synthesized Hegelian Optimism and Schopenhauerian
Pessimism (the two opposing Idealistic
schools of Rationalism and Irrationalism).
- ascribed the
essential characteristics of both idea
and will to the World Spirit, the unconscious, as the true reality of
the universe.
- the unconscious will is irrational in its
creative activity (cosmic stage; right now); consequently civilisation and
culture advance as does human misery.
- the philosopher
values reason (and therefore opposes
the will) and wins control over the will
by conscious and rational thinking.
German Positivism -
resulted from neo-Kantianism (back to
Kant) based on the theory that science alone provides legitimate knowledge
(ultimate reality is unknowable).
Marburg school - the only
reality which is knowable is that which thought posits; object and subject are
both the creations of thought, so that to be and to be thought are identical.
Baden school - types
of universal values (1) logic (ideal of thought) (2) ethics (ideal of will) (3)
aesthetics (ideal of feeling).
metaphysical skepticism -
things-in-themselves cannot be known; knowledge is restricted to sensations.
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