Evolutionary
Naturalism
- Philosophical
naturalism - based on the theory that all phenomena may adequately be
explained by means of physical laws.
Nietzsche applied
the concept of evolution to ethical theory, Marx adapted it to his
socio-political philosophy, Huxley humanized it.
- evolutionary
naturalism attributes a teleology (cosmic
purpose) to nature itself.
Jean de Lamarck (1744-1829) - French zoologist, believed that all forms of life
undergo structural changes when individual members repeatedly use their organs
to cope with the changing environment and that the modified characteristics
thus acquired by the individual are passed on to the offspring.
Darwin argued
that not use or disuse, but the struggle for survival us the decisive factor.
- there is a
process of natural selection whereby those individuals best fitted to overcome
obstacles survive so that their superior characteristics are inherited by
succeeding generations.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) - Origin of Species (1859), doctrine
of natural selection (or survival of the fittest).
Darwin’s theory of evolution explained the
design or purpose evident in organic life by reference to the mechanical laws
of nature and the process of natural selection; agreed with Hegel as to the
necessity for a historical perspective in order to understand the nature of
things (man must be understood in the light of his animal ancestry).
- Darwin accepted
the theory of Ethical Intuitionism
(ethical principles are innate).
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) - developed agnosticism as a central doctrine of
evolutionary theory, accepted the reality of the Unknowable; evolution is a
process of natural changes governed by law and manifesting a mystic force which
he considered beyond man’s comprehension.
- we know that
God exists, but we cannot discover specific facts about his powers or
characteristics.
- the entire
universe develops from relative simplicity to complexity as it seeks to
establish equilibrium of all its forces, but once equilibrium is reached they
dissipate and return to an unbalanced state.
- Spencer defined
life as “the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations”
- justice,
courage and sympathy have persisted as innate moral principles because they
protected society and contributed to social survival, and were transmitted to
succeeding generations.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) - basic philosophy of value theory - “a revaluation of all values”.
The Judeo-Christian system of moral ideals constitutes an inversion of
natural life giving instinctive values, and should be replaced by nature’s
values ie. the Master race.
- Nietzsche
substituted an ethic of power for Judeo-Christian principles; “ethics
of power”: might makes right was a logical consequence of Darwin’s
survival of the fittest.
- advocated
competitive striving to fulfill egoistic instincts and personal achievement
Two types of
morality accompanying two corresponding cultures (1) master morality eg. the
Romans (2) slave morality eg. the Jews
- aristocrats
have become rulers through the exercise of the natural superior abilities
- on the other
hand the slave or subject class have adopted an ethical code emanating from
resentment at their inability to combat the aristocratic class ie. democracy, the principle of equality,
religion with its concept of sin and evil, with the object to reduce the
aristocrat down to their own level.
- Nietzsche’s “Superman” rejects belief in God (“God
is dead”)
Thomas Huxley (1825-1895) - two processes in nature (1) cosmic process of natural evolution (2) ethical process of human evolution
[ethical superior to the cosmic].
- the moral goal
is not “survival of the fittest” but
the education of as many as possible so that they will become worthy of
survival.
Nietzsche’s
individualism is naive in the face of man doing better as a society. Huxley coined the term agnosticism: a doctrine
stating that neither the existence of God nor the character of ultimate reality
is knowable (neither affirms or denies).
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